Biocentric Stability

Often top—down controls by predators or pathogens have much greater effect on biomass and species composition of lower trophic levels than on the flow of energy or nutrients through the ecosystem, because declines in producer biomass are compensated by increased productivity and nutrient cycling rates by other trophic levels. Intensely grazed grassland systems such as the southern and south-eastern Serengeti, for example, have a low plant biomass but rapid cycling of carbon and nutrients due to treading and excretion by large mammals. Grazing prevents the accumulation of standing dead litter, which return nutrients to soil in plant-available forms (McNaughton 1985, 1988). Keystone predators or grazers thus alter the pathway of energy and nutrient flow, modifying the balance between herbivore-based and detritus-based food chains, but we know less about their effects on total energy and nutrients cycling through ecosystems.
Many species effects on ecosystems are indirect and not easily predicted. Species that themselves have small effects on ecosystem processes can have large indirect effects if they influence the abundance of species with large direct ecosystem effects, as described for trophic interactions. Thus a seed disperser or pollinator that has little direct effect on ecosystem processes may be essential for persistence of a canopy species with a greater direct ecosystem impact. Stream predatory invertebrates rates alter the behaviour of their prey, making them more vulnerable to fish predation, which leads to an increase in the weight gain of fish (Soluck and Richardson 1997).Thus all types of organisms—plants, animals, and microorganisms—must be considered in understanding the effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning. Although each of these examples is unique to a particular ecosystem, the ubiquitous nature of species interactions with strong ecosystem effects makes these interactions a general feature of ecosystem functioning (Chapin et al. 2000b). In many cases, changes in these interactions alter the traits that are expressed by species and therefore the effects of species on ecosystem processes. Consequently, simply knowing that a species is present or absent is insufficient to predict its impact on ecosystems. There is currently no clear theoretical framework to predict when these indirect effects are most important. Consequently, the introduction or loss of a species, such as a popular sport fish, often generates unanticipated surprises (Carpenter and Kitchell 1993).


Diversity Effects on Ecosystem Processes
Diversity within a functional type may enhance the efficiency of resource use and retention in ecosystems. Many species in a community appear functionally similar, for example, the nanoplankton in the ocean or the canopy trees in a tropical forest. What are the ecosystem consequences of changes in species diversity within a functional type? Evolutionary theory provides some clues. Ecologically similar species co-exist in a community in part because of niche partitioning. In other words, co-existing species differ slightly in their responses to environment, perhaps specializing to use different soil horizons, canopy heights, or times of season. They may also differ in the range of temperatures or water or nutrient availabilities that they exploit effectively (Tilman 1988). These subtle differences in environmental specialization might increase the efficiency of resource use by the community if some species use resources that would otherwise not be tapped by other species.
In experimental grassland communities, for example, plots that were planted with a larger number of species had greater plant cover and lower concentrations of inorganic soil nitrogen than did low-diversity plots (Tilman et al. 1996). The more diverse plots might use more resources because species have complementary patterns of resource use; in other words, species might differ in the types of resources, the location of their roots, or their timing of uptake. Alternatively, diverse plots might use resources more effectively because they are more likely to have a species that is highly effective in capturing resources or are more likely to include species with complementary patterns of resource use (Hooper et al., in press). In other cases, low-diversity ecosystems are quite efficient in using soil resources. Crop or forest monocultures, for example, are often just as productive as mixed cropping systems (Vandermeer 1995) and mixed-species forest stands (Rodin and Bazilevich 1967). Although there are many examples of a positive relations hip between species number and productivity or efficiency of resource use, this does not always occur. The effect of species richness
Diversity Effects on Ecosystem Processes frequently saturates at a much lower number of species (5 to 10) than characterize most natural communities.
Diversity of functionally similar species stabilizes ecosystem processes in the face of temporal variation in environment. In ecosystems in which functionally similar species differ in environmental response, this can buffer ecosystem processes from environment all fluctuations (McNaughton 1977, Chapin and Shaver 1985). Tropical tree species, for example, differ subtly in their growth response to nutrients. Conditions that favour some species will likely reduce the competitive advantage of other functionally similar species, thus stabilizing the total biomass or activity by the entire community. In other words, in compensation for the reduced growth by some species, other species grow more. For example, in one study, annual variation in weather caused at least a twofold variation production by each of the major vascular plant species in arctic tussock tundra. Years that were favourable for some species, however, reduced the productivity of others, so there was no significant difference in productivity at the ecosystem scale among the 5 years examined (Chapin and Shaver 1985). Directional changes in environment can also cause less change in total biomass than in the biomass of individual species for similar reasons; some species respond positively to the change in environment, whereas other species respond negatively. This stabilization of biomass and production by diversity has been observed in many studies (Cottingham et al. 2001), including grasslands, in response to the addition of water and nutrients (Lauenroth et al. 1978) and to grazing (McNaughton 1977);
in tundra, in response to changes in temperature, light, and nutrients (Chapin and Shaver
1985); and in lakes, in response to acidification (Frost et al. 1995). This stability of processes provided by diversity has societal relevance. Many traditional farmers plant diverse crops, not to maximize productivity in a given year but to decrease the chances of crop failure in a bad year (Altieri 1990).

Why Capitalism?

No matter what happens the capitalist free market it will continue to prosper and grow. With every turn of the government trying to curtail big money and stifle markets and trade those in "money power" always figure a way to succeed.  The very basis of each of our lives is predicated by unprecedented eras of success, success in capitalism. From the earliest days of the industrial revolution to the Internet revolution and now the green world revolution capitalism will always succeed. You must understand that people and the world have an intrinsic need for growth and prosperity. The very nature of man shuns complacency and looks to improve. Every car we build must go faster, every computer faster, assembly lines faster; you see there is a need for constant improvement. You may say it isn't necessary but things are only improved for one reason, money and power. Money because it is a function of free markets and capitalism and power because the masters of the universe, the brightest minds, have an innate need to be the best

Capitalism creates class strife and inequality.  Capitalists' have one thing in mind; How can I make my product better than all others and who do I need to help me get there.  With that in mind the capitalist is going to seek the brightest mind, most dedicated person, to help shape and develop his idea.  When these ideas come to fruition the capitalist and those chosen to help him will reap the financial benefits.  The very idea of a free trade market creates a "survival of the fittest" if you will.  It is designed to reward those that rise to the top of their prospective fields.  The principals of capitalism and free markets have created the worlds largest market, the U.S., but has also created class strife.  The government tries to mend these gaps but in large is unsuccessful.  Why you may ask, because tomorrow when someone wants to make a breakthrough in their business the will still revert to the principal of who is the best.  Decisions cannot and will not be made that have the possibility of deteriorating the capitalist ability to grow and prosper.

Linear Consumption

Linear Consumption refers to our consumption patterns.  Throwaway fashion is an example where "I buy, I use and I throw". This is linear and is at odds with nature which follows a closed system.

Earth’s natural resources are finite, unless we start thinking about extending the life span of these materials by maximizing their full potential, our consumption will eventually deplete these resources.

One way to alleviate this pressure is to change our consumption patterns to mimic that of nature. Nature is cyclical; the water we drink and bathe in has been recycled many times over through earth's natural filters.

Even if you’re not particularly interested in recycling, you might be interested to know that all this pressure and eventual scarcity will have an effect on your wallet. As we continue to consume our natural resources, simple supply and demand economics mean that prices will increase.

Take the cost of petrol; over the years this has increased. In 1980 the average cost of a liter of petrol was 26p compared to £1.36 today. In 1980 there were approximately 19.2 million registered vehicles in Britain, compared to approximately 32 million today. The cost of fuel has various components including, geopolitical issues, taxation and demand. However, consumer demand and growing scarcity of this resource will ensure that prices will continue to increase, irrespective of the other price components.

Our lifestyle choices affect us all. Small changes in how we live can have a large impact on our planet and for the less environmentally inclined, on our wallets too.

Production

With the "technological cleverness" of the Industrial Revolution there ensued a  shift from hand-crafted goods to assembly-line mass production, powered by steam engines.  Industrialised countries became more efficent at producing.

In 1913, it took a worker 12.5 hours to make an automobile chassis.  By 1914 it took 1.5 hours.
Garbage and the Green Dot: Challenging a Throwaway Society
Bette K.Fishbein Pg 46

With a huge increase in productivity, industrialised societies faced a choice.  To  keep producing the same volume and work less or to continue to work the same amount and over produce  the volume of items demanded in society.

Henry Ford , best known for his perfection and standardisation of the assembly line came up with the solution.  Ford was aware that his companies success depended on creating a consumer class. and fascilitating mass consumption.

In 1914, Ford took the unprecedented step of voluntarily doubling his workers salaries to $5 a day.  He also decreased the workday from nine to eight hours. His reward: lower worker turnover, the ability to run three shifts a day instead of two, and greater car sales as the workers themselves joined his customer base.  Other companies watching this process soon followed Ford's lead, and the foundation for mass consumerism was set.  

Shortly after WW2 Victor Lebow described what society needed to keep people consuming and factories producing.

“Our enormously productive economy....demands that we make consumption our way of life, that we convert the buying and use of goods into rituals, that we seek our spiritual satisfactions, our ego satisfactions, in consumption....We need things consumed, burned up, worn out, replaced, and discarded at an ever increasing rate.”

Victor Lebow

Retailing Analyst

In order to achieve this vision, industry executives developed strategies to facilitae this social and cultural move:

1: Transitioning from local stores to ubiquitious shopping malls to the big-boxes and internet retailers of today.

2: Making it possible for customers to buy now and pay later(plus interest) with the heavy promotion of credit and credit cards.

3: Systematizing and normalising the concepts of planned and perceived obsolescence.

4: Removing self-reliant  and/or community based ways to fulfill basic needs

5: The intentional merging of identity and status with consumption (i.e that you are what you buy).

6: Advertising - Crown jewel. 

BIOCENTRIC (Naturally sustainable cycles) Ecosystem Processes

The traits and diversity or organisms and their interactions in communities strongly affect ecosystem processes. This chapter describes the patterns of community effects on ecosystem processes. Species traits interact with the physical environment to govern ecosystem processes

Predators, such as planktivorous fish, that feed on the same prey also constitute a functional type or feeding guild. However, no two species or individuals within a functional type are ecologically identical, so, as our understanding improves or our questions become more refined, we expect to recognize situations in which species diversity within functional types or genetic diversity within species has detectable ecosystem consequences.
Natural ecosystems are currently experiencing major changes in species diversity and the traits of dominant species. Earth is currently in the midst of the sixth major extinction event in the history of life (Pimm ci al. 1995). Although the causes of earlier extinction events (e.g., the extinction of dinosaurs) are uncertain, they probably resulted from sudden changes in physical environment caused by factors such as asteroid impacts or pulses of volcanism. Current extinction rates are 100- to 1000-fold higher than prehuman extinction rates and could rise to 10,000-fold, if species that are currently threatened become extinct

The current extinction event is unique in the history of life in that it is biotically driven, specifically by the effect of the human species on land use, species invasions, and atmospheric and environmental change.

Although human impacts affect many processes at global scales (Vitousek 1994a), the loss of species diversity is of particular concern because it is irreversible. For this reason, it is critical to understand the functional consequences of the current large losses in species diversity (Chapm et al. 2000b). Although global extinction of a species is a major conservation concern, localized extinctions or large changes in abundances happen more frequently and have the largest effects on functioning of ecosystems.
A second biotic change of global proportions is the frequent introduction of exotic species into ecosystems. People have intentionally and inadvertently moved thousands of species around the globe, leading toward a homogenization of the global biota. Exotic species often change the physical and biotic environment enough to alter the dominance or eliminate native species from an ecosystem. Although extinction and immigration of species are natural ecological processes, the dramatic increase in frequency of these events in recent decades is rapidly changing the types and numbers of species throughout the globe. There are many ethical, aesthetic, and economic reasons for concern about changes in biodiversity. The changes are occurring so quickly, however, that we must assess their functional consequences for population, community, and ecosystem processes. Changes in species composition often have a greater effect on ecosystem processes than do the direct impacts of global changes in atmospheric composition and climate. Understanding the nature of biotic impacts on ecosystem processes is therefore critical to predictions of future changes in ecosystems. In this chapter we focus on the ecosystem consequences of changes in communities and the associated changes in species traits.
The number, relative abundance, identity, and interactions of species all affect ecosystem processes. Species in a given trophic level almost always differ in some traits that affect ecosystem processes. Sun and shade species, for example, differ in the conditions under which they contribute to carbon inputs; presence of both types of species therefore increases the efficiency with which light is converted to net primary production (NPP) Nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria differ from non- fixing phytoplankton in their impacts on nitrogen cycling; presence of both types of species therefore influences the response of nitrogen cycling to variations in phosphorus inputs to lakes. No single species can perform all of the functional roles that are exhibited by a trophic level. A diversity of species is functionally important because it increases the range of organismic traits that are represented in an ecosystem and therefore the range of conditions under which ecosystem properties can be sustained. From an ecosystem perspective, species diversity is simply a summary variable that describes the total range of biological attributes of all the species in the ecosystem. The functional consequences of a change in diversity depend on the number of species present (species richness), their relative abundances (species evenness), the identity of species that are present (species composition), the interactions among species, and the temporal and spatial variation in these properties. Each of these components of diversity affects the functioning of ecosystems. 

The nature of being human: from environmentalism to consciousness

Reification is rooted in the necessities of economic life. The intensification of the drive for surplus value and profit accelerates the rate at which past goods are liquidated to make way for new goods; planned obsolescence is everywhere from consumer goods or thinking to sexuality. Built-in obsolescence exempts neither thought nor humans. Social amnesia is society’s repression of remembrance—society’s own past. It is a psychic commodity of the commodity society.
An important aspect of economically produced social amnesia to which Jacoby alluded is the notion that planned obsolescence refers also to human beings. In other words, social amnesia encompasses the human cost of economic activity and success. It also incorporates the natural world whereby creation is forgotten in its instrumental reduction to “natural resources” Clearly, this is revealed in the capitalist commodification of creation and the objectification of human labour as commodities to be bought and sold, hired and fired, and employed and unemployed (or under-employed) according to the whim of market conditions. This is precisely what Kavanaugh refers to as the commodity form. The commodity form defines the reified matrix of our capitalist existence, and it serves as a potent legitimation for the devaluation of creation and the objectification of human beings.

African Digital Graveyard

"Africa: Digital Graveyard" addresses the growing problem of electronic waste or "e-waste" as developed nations ship obsolete and second hand electronics to countries like Ghana. Most of the items are worthless and end up in dumpsites in Accra. The film also depicted action taken by innovators in South Africa who have found creative ways to recycle, refurbish and reprocess elements from old electronics for use as raw materials in the manufacture of new products.